This is particularly beneficial in conditions accompanied by chronic inflammation and redox imbalance, such as diabetes or obesity (13, 16)

This is particularly beneficial in conditions accompanied by chronic inflammation and redox imbalance, such as diabetes or obesity (13, 16). and E (IgA and IgE), interleukin-6 (IL-6), interleukin-2 (IL-2), and tumor necrosis factor (TNF-); activity of ceruloplasmin (Cp); and levels of caspase 3 and 8 (Casp3 and Casp8). Feeding rats a high-fat diet increased blood markers of induction of inflammation, ie pro-inflammatory cytokines IL-6 and TNF-, and also significantly increased IgE. The diet had no effect on the blood count, except for an increase in the number of neutrophils. The chromium compounds tested, particularly Cr-Met and Cr-NPs, stimulated the immune system of the rats, as indicated by increased concentrations of Flavopiridol HCl IgA, IgE, IL-2, IL-6, TNF-, and Cp. Given the increase in inflammatory mediators induced by chromium, it should not be used to mitigate the effects of a high-fat diet. Moreover, chromium picolinate and chromium nanoparticles were Flavopiridol HCl shown to increase the content of caspase 3 and 8 in the blood of rats, which indicates a pro-apoptotic effect. The effects of the use of chromium nanoparticles include reductions in the WBC count and in the thrombocyte count (leuko- and thrombopenia). Taking account these data the use of chromium as dietary supplement should be reconsidered. Keywords: immunity, hematology, chromium picolinate, chromium(III)-methionine, chromium nanoparticles, cytokine, rat Introduction Chromium(III) is a microelement with a well-documented beneficial effect on carbohydrate and lipid metabolism, mainly through improvement of insulin signaling (1). Together with niacin, glutamic acid, glycine and cysteine, trivalent chromium is a component of glucose tolerance factor, which is responsible for insulin binding to the receptor, thereby enabling proper utilization of glucose by tissues (2). Furthermore, it increases the number of insulin receptors and insulin receptor activity through phosphorylation (3, 4). In addition, CrIII takes part in protein biosynthesis and transformations of nucleic acids (5, 6). A deficiency of this metal in the body results in reduced tissue sensitivity to insulin, disturbances in glucose tolerance, growth inhibition, and a deterioration in blood lipid parameters (7). Supplementation with chromium compounds can be an effective element of prevention and supportive therapy of diabetes and other illnesses, e.g. cardiovascular disease (8). There are often dietary factors underlying these diseases, resulting in overweight and obesity. Chromium can help to reduce body weight Ngfr and improve the blood lipid profile, and for this reason it is a common ingredient in supplements used in weight loss treatment (9, 10). Both diabetes and obesity are accompanied by oxidative stress and chronic inflammation (11C13). Chromium can have a beneficial effect on redox status by increasing the level of reduced glutathione (14), one of the most important endogenous antioxidants, as well as on the activity of the antioxidant enzymes superoxide dismutase and catalase (14, 15). In diabetes patients and animals with experimentally Flavopiridol HCl induced diabetes, chromium supplementation has been shown to reduce the level of oxidative stress markers and pro-inflammatory cytokines (15C17). According to Cheng et?al. (18), the antioxidant activity of Cr depends on health status; in people with glucose intolerance it has an antioxidant effect, but in healthy individuals it can act as a pro-oxidant. The antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects of chromium have been demonstrated by Chen et?al. (19) in mice on a high-fat diet. The use of chromium was shown to minimize the negative effects of this type of diet and inhibit the progression of diet-induced fatty liver. Benefits in the form of reduced inflammation and oxidative stress in rats on a high-fat diet have also been shown in studies using additives of various chromium compounds, e.g. picolinate, nicotinate and histidinate (20, 21). Many experiments have shown that chromium can act as an immune modulator Flavopiridol HCl (stimulatory or suppressive) through its effect on various immune system components, e.g. B cells, T cells, and macrophages, as well as on cytokine production (22C25). A deficiency of this metal in the body results in impaired humoral immunity (26). The ability of chromium to reduce the.